Emerging Communication

Series and list of volumes

    Communication in VR

    Towards CyberPsychology

    Say not to say

    Being there

Preface

Introduction

Contents

Extra Content Online

Contributors

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    Ambient Intelligence

    The hidden structure
    of interaction

    From Communication to
    Presence

IOS Press

Editorial Board

Designing Presence Machines: Cyclotrons for the Mind?

If virtual environments are technologies of the mind, then advanced media environments may be to the mind, like cyclotrons are to physics. In cyclotrons, engineers whirl atoms through space to see something essential about their structure.

Advanced virtual environment engineers may whirl minds through cyberspace to understand something fundamental about the structure of experience -- in a word, consciousness. The study of presence can be seen as the study of those traces of phenomenal experience that emerge when brains and bodies are whirled through virtual spaces created by media. By tracing those patterns that we call presence, we may come to understand something fundamental about both mind and media, neuron and silicon. The authors in this book offer to you, the reader, sightings and reports on the patterns of presence they have observed. May you join them in their search for the presence of mind.

I suspect that many of the readers of this book have talked about great “interface design” or heard others talk about it. When you hear interface designers talk about great interfaces or write about how to design them, you often hear words like “intuitive,” “simple,” or “transparent.” What do these terms really mean? Let me suggest to you that they point to a fundamental assumption that lies behind these terms.

Phrases such as “transparent” or “intuitive” suggest interfaces that are more or less in harmony with the functioning of the mind. An interface that is in better harmony with the way the mind works is more “intuitive.” If it is in strong harmony with the way the mind works it becomes not just intuitive, but “transparent.” For some, “transparency” is what presence means, the “elimination of mediation” [12]. This very old idea echoes the famous painter Alberti who wanted to learn the laws of perspective so that his paintings would simply become a transparent window pane on the simulated environment of his painting.

But is transparency, the elimination of mediation, the only goal of the engineering of presence? Is this all a medium can be when it obeys the “laws” of the mind? Surely the implied claim does not stop there. Let me continue my optics analogy a little further. If an interface were completley transparent, would that be enough? Is transparency, a kind of physical fidelity worthy of physics, the heart of presence? What do I mean? Let me make an analogy with another technology.

Let us say that I want to produce a technology -- an interface if you will -- that assists the eye. If I produce a clear sheet of glass and place it before the eye; it is surely transparent. But it is not clear that it actually assists the functioning of the eye. A technology that was just transparent might have little function. But what if, on the other hand, I mold the glass when designing my “eye interface,” if I make a lens? It is still transparent, but I somehow augmented the functioning of the eye. By analogy, does the design of presence really seek a lens for the mind, not just a piece of transparent glass? Is that why the study of presence is often preoccupied with the relationship between presence and the physical and cognitive performance of users? In the design of virtual reality and augmented reality, there is a claim that the interfaces are more transparent to the functioning of the brain than say television, but it is also claimed that this greater transparency somehow augments human intelligence [4].

Presence is not just about the illusion of being there, but also about how the simulation of future, past, or imaginary space can sharpen the mind’s performance when flying a plane; considering the architecture, space, and function of the Roman forum; exploring the sinewy bonds of a DNA molecule; identifying with the life experience of a character in a novel or a film; or accessing the “thoughts and emotions” of a virtual agent in a collaborative virtual environment.

Advanced virtual reality and augmented reality interfaces are among those that push the outer limits of interface design.

When designers push the outer limits, possibly the designers are looking for something that is to psychology what the cyclotron is to physics, a presence machine – a technology that accelerates, reveals, and probes the essence of reality.

But as interface design makes clear, a cyclotron of the mind can only be created by perfectly simulating the medium of the mind, the body, or what McLuhan called the extended senses.

If the mind is anchored by the body, it is on this thought where I can join the long line of Munsterberg, McLuhan, and Bricken to say: The mind is in the heart of presence.

Frank Biocca
M.I.N.D. Labs, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan, USA


* Actually Munsterberg was referring at his time only the new visual media film, so he said “Film obeys the laws of mind.” But had he lived later in the media century, he surely would have seen that his instinct about film applied to all media.



References

[1] F. Biocca, Sampling from the museum of forms: Photography and visual thinking in the rise of modern statistics, in Communication Yearbook 10, M. McLaughlin, Editor. 1987, Sage: Beverly Hills. p. 684-708.
[2] F. Biocca, The Pursuit of Sound: Radio, Perception, and Utopia in the Early Twentieth Century. Media, Culture, & Society, 1988. 10: p. 61-80.
[3] F. Biocca, What does it mean for consciousness to feel "presence" in virtual reality? in Towards a science of consciousness "Tuscon II". 1996. Tuscon.
[4] F. Biocca, Intelligence augmentation: The vision inside virtual reality., in Cognitive technology: in search of a humane interface, B. Gorayska and J.L. Mey, Editors. 1996, Elsevier: Amsterdam ; Oxford. p. 59-73.
[5] F. Biocca, The cyborg's dilemma: progressive embodiment in virtual environments. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 1997. 3(2):
http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol3/issue2/biocca2.html [6] F. Biocca, T. Kim, and M. Levy, The vision of virtual reality, in Communication in the age of virtual reality, F. Biocca and M. Levy, Editors. 1995, Lawrence Erlbaum Press: Hillsdale, NJ. p. 3-14.
[7] F. Biocca and K. Nowak, Plugging your body into the telecommunication system: Mediated embodiment, media interfaces, and social virtual environments, in Communication technology and society, C. Lin and D. Atkin, Editors. 2001, Hampton Press: Waverly Hill, VI. p. 407-447.
[8] H. Munsterberg, The Photoplay: A Psychological Study. 1916, New York: D. Aplleton & Co.
[9] M. McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy. 1964, New York: Signet.
[10] M. McLuhan, Understanding Media: The extension of man. 1964, New York: Signet. 318.
[11] M. McLuhan, and E. McLuhan, Laws of media:
The new science. 1992, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
[12] M. Lombard and T. Ditton, At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 1997. 3 (2).
http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol3/issue2/lombard.html

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Introduction

The biggest challenge to developing telepresence is achieving that sense of “being there.” Can telepresence be a true substitute for the real thing? Will we be able to couple our artificial devices naturally and comfortably to work together with the sensory mechanisms of human organisms?

Marvin Minsky, 1980


According to different analysts, during the next ten years a new infrastructural paradigm will emerge, the ‘Ambient Intelligent Space’. This is the collection of infrastructural technologies, applications and services that will enable the seamless interoperation of the applications and services of Ambient Intelligence: a pervasive and unobtrusive intelligence in the surrounding environment supporting the activities and interactions of the users.

However, there are many outstanding requirements in order to reduce the lag between the availability of (hardware) technologies and the availability of applications and services based on those technologies, including support for rapid prototyping, user acceptance trials, real life experiments and demonstrations. In particular, achieving this vision will require the development of more natural ways of interacting with computer and information technology systems. This for example, will help to eliminate barriers that arise from difficulties that people experience in using current interaction devices such as screens and keyboards.

A more advanced human-centered interaction with systems would provide users with a sense of being there, close to if not equivalent to the experience of actual presence. Creating this sense of presence remains a major challenge and is leading to the development of new interdisciplinary research, combining cognitive psychology, haptic (sense of touch) studies, computer graphics and multimedia design, advanced communication theory and socio-cultural issues. A theory of presence, emerging through this interdisciplinary research, that explores the cognitive and affective roots of sensory perception, is expected to give rise to the design of innovative systems that offer "richer" experiences than any current media and communication technologies.

However, this is not an easy task.

This book is an attempt to help designer and researchers in reaching this goal, by developing a better understanding of how a real sense of presence can be achieved. It involves learning and discovering what is going on when people use their senses to understand and interpret their surrounding environment and when they interact with objects in that environment. For the complexity of the discussed topic, we have put a great deal of thought and effort in the definition of the structure of the book and the sequence of the contributions, so that those in search of a specific reading path will be rewarded. To this end we have divided the book in four main Sections comprising 21 chapters overall:

1. Presence: Past, Present and Future

2. Presence: Theory and Methods

3. Presence in Practice: Applications

4. Social Presence: Creating a Common Ground

Each chapter begins with a brief abstract and a table of contents that help the reader to identify the relationships among the section’s chapters.


1. Presence: Past, Present and Future

In Chapter 1, IJsselsteijn and Riva present the forms of the experience of “being there” in a mediated environment by discussing different types of presence: physical presence, social presence and co-presence. Two main approaches are considered. On the one hand the fidelity-based approach, which emphasizes the role of perceptual realism and immersiveness in creating a more convincing experience of presence. On the other hand, the ecological-cultural approach, which points out the importance of a common cultural framework and of the possibility of action in the mediated environment.

IJsselsteijn in Chapter 2 provides an historical review of the development of cinema, television, telerobotics and virtual environments in search for the roots of the concept of presence in today’s media technology. Such investigation shows how, despite current technological advances allow for more and more perceptual realism, people’s responses to media do not appear to be a linear product of the extent of sensory information provided by the medium. A significant role is instead played by previous experiences with and expectations towards the media.

Davide and Walker, starting from the analysis of the techniques used by artists try to outline in Chapter 3 a four-stage strategy for engineering presence using virtual environments. The proposed strategy involves simplification of the physical world, decomposition of complex situations so as to identify simple situations for which the user already possesses adequate mental imagery; identification of cues capable of effectively evoking this imagery, recomposition of complex realities via the creation of sequences of cues capable of generating complex and novel mental imagery.

Chapter 4 by Riva, Loreti, Lunghi, Vatalaro and Davide, shows how the significant advances in three different technological areas – virtual environments, mobile communication and sensors/biosensors – allow the emergence of a new vision: the Ambient Intelligence. As we have seen before, it is a pervasive and unobtrusive intelligence in the surrounding environment supporting the activities and interactions of the users.

Implications of such a perspective for the evolution of the concept of presence are also discussed. In particular the authors underline how the sense of “being there” covers only the simulation side of the sense of presence. To be “present“ in the augmented context offered by Ambient Intelligence, the user has to be aware of its meaning.

2. Presence: Theory and Methods

Main focus of Chapter 5 by Marsh is the discussion of an activity-based approach to the analysis and design of interactive mediated environments. According to the author, during the mediated experience, participants are generally absorbed in the illusion of interacting within the context created by the media and their attention is shifted from the real world to the mediated environments. In order to avoid a break-down in this illusion (called by the author “virtual corpsing”) and allowing for the user staying there, two features play a main role: transparency of the equipment and continuity of interacting within the social and cultural environment depicted virtually. Both of these aspects are considered within the holistic activity-based scenario and narrative perspective proposed in the chapter.

In the chapter by Gamberini and Spagnolli (Chapter 6), the authors analyze the relationship between presence and usability in virtual environments. Main drawbacks for this analysis reside in the divide between the symbolic and the physical realm, on the one side, and between the simulation and the real world, on the other. The authors propose a situated, action-based approach which may avoid these problems. Within this perspective, user’s presence is taken to emerge from the actions performed, and usability is referred to the complex object created by the situated interaction with the simulation. Some significant aspects of a recent evaluation work carried out within this framework by the authors are also presented.

In Chapter 7 (Insko) and Chapter 8 (Gaggioli, Bassi and Delle Fave) methodological issues concerning the measurement of the sense of presence are presented.

Insko makes a review of subjective, behavioral and physiological methods to measure presence, discussing their use in the field, advantages and disadvantages and providing a comparison of such methods in terms of reliability, validity, objectivity and sensitivity criteria.

Gaggioli, Bassi and Delle Fave present a theoretical and methodological approach to the study of presence focusing on the analysis of the quality of experience associated with the virtual environments, in its emotional, cognitive and motivational components. The specific research instruments (the ESM-Experience Sampling Method and the FQ-Flow Questionnaire), which can be used to study the quality of subjective experience in virtual environments, are also presented.

The chapter by Zhao (Chapter 9) differentiates two basic modes of mediated presence, remote presence and virtual presence, through the use of the metaphor of “being there”. Remote presence (“being there”) refers to presence in a virtual environment through sensory extension, where users believe that they are in contact with a real, albeit remote, environment, and their sense of “being there” is affected by the perceptual fidelity they receive. Virtual presence (“being there”), on the other hand, is characterized by the fact that users feel present in an environment simulated by a presence medium in the form of a mental model; in this case, the sense of “being there” is affected by the realism of the simulation users perceive.

The merging of this two modes of the sense of “being there” can constitute a synthetic environment that combines remote and virtual presence.

3. Presence in Practice: Applications

Chapter 10 by Davies, Rydberg, Mitchell, Hornyansky, Dalhom and Nichols focuses on the role played by presence in mixed reality for participatory design. Case studies are presented in which virtual reality and other forms of synthetic reality representation are used in order to portray how a particular design is going to look and fit in the surrounding context. Feeling present in the portrayed environment offers an end-user the opportunity to obtain a full appreciation of space, by allowing him to think himself into that environment and to consider how that environment will function in daily usage.

In Chapter 11 by Mantovani F. and Castelnuovo, the role of the sense of presence in Virtual Training Environments is explored. As pointed out by the authors, in order to be effective, the learning experience should seem real and engaging to participants, as if they were “in there”: they should feel (emotionally and cognitively) present in the situation. Goal of the chapter is to investigate the relationships existing among the factors that are critical for the emergence of a sense of presence in virtual training environments. The relationship between sense of presence and training efficacy is also discussed.

Da Bormida and Lefrere discuss in Chapter 12 three forms of mobile-supported user presence considered within a distance-learning context. The authors talk about ‘anticipatory user presence’, ‘super-real presence’ and ‘retrospective presence’. The first one concerns the kind of presence needed to prepare for a meeting or a visit; the second one is focused on increasing sense of participation during a meeting or a visit by the use of a combination of real and computer-generated images; the third form is about the possibility of changing the apparent nature of one’s presence, and perhaps even level and nature of one’s participation, after the event.

The persuasive effects of presence in immersive virtual environments are the topic covered by Grigorovici in Chapter 13. The author reviews empirical findings from a recent research program studying information processing consequences of presence in virtual environments. Moreover, he presents a two-step theoretical model of persuasion-related effects. The paper proposes that due to their specific characteristics, immersive virtual environments could be more effective persuasion channels than the classical advertising media. Possible applications in entertainment VR, e-marketing, advertising, public or health communication are also discussed.

Chapter 14 by Farshchian deals with the analysis of presence technologies for supporting informal collaboration: all those spontaneous and unplanned interactions that occur frequently and transparently within the organization and that are recognized to be crucial for developing working and social relations, as well as for long-time learning. The author investigates a number of existing presence applications that are designed to support informal collaboration, and compares them to presence technologies for supporting formal collaboration. A system model that attempts to integrate support for presence needed in both informal and formal collaboration is finally introduced.

Waterworth and Waterworth in Chapter 15 present an approach to presence focused on its role in eliciting creativity. The authors point out the importance of encouraging switches between presence and absence in order to stimulate everyday creativity in specific types of situation. They discuss the role of Perceptually-Seductive Technology and provide an example of a novel immersive environment – the Interactive Tent – and an artistic production within it – The Illusion of Being. Finally, their chapter describes an experiment used to assess the degree of presence within this environment.

Chapter 16 by Hofmann and Bubb reports the concept and results of an empirical study that explored presence in industrial virtual environment applications. The work analyzed the effects of immersion and pictorial realism on the sense of presence in the virtual environment and differentiated among three presence facets: reality appraisal, involvement and spatial presence. Practical implications of these results for the design of virtual reality systems are also proposed.

4. Social Presence: Creating a Common Ground

In Chapter 17, Cottone and Mantovani G. discuss the importance of creating a “common ground” and support to co-reference in distant learning in order to enhance social presence and the situation awareness of participants to CMC environments. According to the authors, one level of awareness consists in being informed of the presence, positions and actions of other people in the virtual space. A further level of awareness is offered by collaborative virtual environments, which allow participants to be represented by avatars, thus fostering the experience of embodiment. Combination of this technological environments and tools can help transforming “virtual” spaces into social places inhabited by “real” communities of learners.

Chapter 18 by Markopoulos, IJsselsteijn, Huijnen, Romijn and Philopoulos discusses research carried out to understand the requirements of elderly for informal social telecommunication media that may be addressed through awareness technologies. In particular, it discusses the relation between the concept of social presence and the notion of awareness that the class of systems studied supports. Finally, the authors draw attention to the research method used, which they feel is the most appropriate for gauging the social effects of technologies introduced to support social activities through ICT.

In Chapter 19, Heeter, Gregg, Climo, Biocca and Dekker present findings from case studies focusing on the use of Tele-windows, a telecommunication system aiming at extending participation in social groups for homebound and mobility-limited people. The system enable a new kind of social experience: an ambient presence, a shared window between a homebound senior’s living room and the senior center they used to frequent. Such an environment allows the development of a form of asymmetrical social presence, connecting one virtual participant with a group of physically present seniors.

In Chapter 20, Manninen presents the findings of ethnographical research, which elaborates and analyses the interaction forms of a contemporary multi-player game. This investigation shows that participants of collaborative virtual environments can use various forms of non-verbal communication and perceivable actions to enhance social presence. The findings also indicate that players tend to communicate outside the game system and try to overcome the limitations of the systems by inventing various imaginative ways to communicate, co-ordinate and co-operate.

Finally, Boucouvalas (Chapter 21) describes a real-time text-to-emotion engine used to allow expressive Internet communications. Such an interface enhances text communication in multi-user environments by automatically extracting emotional states from the content of typed sentences, and displaying on the screen appropriate facial expression images in real time. The system also supports text to speech synthesis and the use of a shared whiteboard.

For the on-line version only Riva and Waterworth prepared a new paper (Extra content for the on-line version) outlining a cognitive-neuroscience theory of presence. The paper, published on the on-line journal Presence-connect, describes the sense of presence as a defining feature of self and it is related to the evolution of a key feature of any central nervous system: the embedding of sensory-referred properties into an internal functional space. Without the emergence of the sense of presence it is impossible for the nervous system to identify the separation between an external world and the internal one.

The wide array of disciplines and applications described in the four Sections strengthens the idea of the importance of presence for real-life applications. As the field continues to grow, we eagerly expect larger on-the-field trials as well as outcomes comparisons to existing methods of practice, supporting continued growth of new applications.

Moreover, the book also outlines how the vision of Ambient Intelligence can be a strong starting point for giving direction to presence research over the coming five/ten years. Major opportunities to create an integrated Ambient Intelligence landscape, based on advanced and intuitive interfaces, can be built in areas such as mobile communications, portable devices, systems integration, embedded computing and intelligent systems design.

The design goal of achieving optimal presence within Ambient Intelligence requires an interdisciplinary approach, integrating knowledge and ideas from disciplines such as neuroscience, social and cognitive psychology, multisensory perception, cognition, artificial intelligence, multimedia development, video compression or telecom engineering. In order to build environments which can efficiently transmit remote presence, it will be necessary to incorporate and integrate ongoing insights from these fields into next-generation research for advanced, wideband multisensory services and novel telecommunications architectures.

Moreover, the vision of Ambient Intelligence also emphasizes the social dimension of innovation, and the ability as well as the willingness of society to use, absorb or adapt to technological opportunities. Alongside technological and economic feasibility, the implications for issues such as social sustainability, privacy, social robustness and fault tolerance may in the longer run determine the success or failure of both Ambient Intelligence and any presence-enhanced application.

In the end, we hope that the contents of this book will stimulate more research on technical, cognitive and human factors connected to the sense of “being there” and on how best use it in communication, education, commerce, design and telemedicine.

F. Davide, Ph.D.
TELECOM ITALIA Learning Services S.p.A.
Rome, Italy

Giuseppe Riva, Ph.D.
Istituto Auxologico Italiano
& Centro di Psicologia della Comunicazione
Milan, Italy

W.A. IJsselsteijn, Drs.
Eindhoven University of Technology
Eindhoven, The Netherlands

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Contents

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Preface
Frank Biocca
go to preface

Introduction
Fabrizio Davide, Giuseppe Riva, Wijnard A. IJsselsteijn
go to introduction

Extra Content
for the Online Version (Presence-Connect, Vol.3, Issue 3, 2003)
Presence and Self: A cognitive-neuroscience approach (HTML file)
G. RIVA and J. A. WATERWORTH
go to extra content


PART 1 - Presence: Past, Present and Future

1. Being There: The experience of presence in mediated environments (180 kb)
W.A. IJSSELSTEIJN and G.RIVA
download

2. Presence in the Past: what can we learn from Media History? (460 kb)
W.A. IJSSELSTEIJN
download

3. Engineering Presence: an Experimental Strategy (870 kb)
F. DAVIDE, R.WALKER
download

4. Presence 2010: The Emergence of Ambient Intelligence (950 kb)
G. RIVA, P. LORETI, M. LUNGHI,F. VATALARO, F. DAVIDE
download


PART 2 - Presence: Theory and Methods

5. Staying there: an activity-based approach to narrative design
and evaluation as an antidote to virtual corpsing (190 kb)
T. MARSH
download

6. On the Relationship between Presence and Usability: a Situated, Action-Based Approach to Virtual Environments (180 kb)
L. GAMBERINI and A. SPAGNOLLI
download

7. Measuring Presence: Subjective, Behavioral and Physiological Methods (410 kb)
B. E. INSKO
download

8. Quality of Experience in Virtual Environments (190 kb))
A. GAGGIOLI, M. BASSI, A. DELLE FAVE
download

9. "Being there" and the Role of Presence Technology (140 kb)
S. ZHAO
download


PART 3 - Presence in Practice: Applications

10. Are you with us? The role of presence in Mixed Reality
for Participatory Design (310 kb)
R. C. DAVIES, B. Rydberg MITCHELL, E. Hornyanzsky DALHOM,
S. NICHOLS
download

11. Sense of Presence in Virtual Training:
Enhancing Skills Acquisition and Transfer of Knowledge
through Learning Experience in Virtual Environments (180 kb)
F. MANTOVANI, G. CASTELNUOVO
download

12. User Presence in Mobile Environments (140 kb)
G. DA BORMIDA, P. LEFRERE
download

13. Persuasive Effects of Presence in Immersive Virtual Environments (300 kb)
D. GRIGOROVICI
download

14. Presence Technologies for Informal Collaboration (160 kb)
B. A. FARSHCHIAN
download

15. The Illusion of Being Creative (520 kb)
E. L. WATERWORTH and J. A. WATERWORTH
download

16. Presence in Industrial VirtualEnvironment Applications
Susceptibility and Measurement Reliability (160 kb)
J. HOFMANN and H. BUBB
download

PART 4 - Social Presence: Creating a Common Ground

17. Grounding "subjective views"
Situation awareness and co-reference in distance learning (170 kb)
P. COTTONE, G. MANTOVANI
download

18. Supporting Social Presence Through Asynchronous Awareness Systems (300 kb)
P. MARKOPOULOS, W. IJSSELSTEIJN, C. HUIJNEN, O. ROMIJN and A. PHILOPOULOS
download

19. Telewindows: Case Studies in Asymmetrical Social Presence (200 kb)
C. HEETER, J. GREGG, J. CLIMO, F. BIOCCA, D. DEKKER
download

20. Interaction Manifestations in Multi-player Games (210 kb)
C. HEETER, J. GREGG, J. CLIMO, F. BIOCCA, D. DEKKER
download

21. Real Time Text-to-Emotion Engine for Expressive Internet Communications (510 kb)
F. C. BOUCOUVALAS
download


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Contributors

Marta BASSI

Laboratorio di Psicologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Precliniche LITA Vialba, Facoltà di Medicina e Chirurgia, Università degli Studi di Milano,
Milan, Italy

Frank BIOCCA
MIND Lab, Michigan State University,
Michigan, USA

Anthony C. BOUCOUVALAS
Multimedia Communications Research Group,
Bournemouth University,
School of DesignEngineering and Computing,
Fern Barrow, United Kingdom

Heiner BUBB
Society and Technology Research Group, DaimlerChrysler AG
Berlin, Germany

Gianluca CASTELNUOVO

Applied Technology for Neuro-Psychology, Istituto Auxologico Italiano,
Milan, Italy.

Laboratorio di Psicologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Precliniche LITA Vialba, Facoltà diMedicina e Chirurgia, Università degli Studi di Milano,
Milan, Italy

Jacob CLIMO
Cpartment of Antropology, Michigan State University,
Michigan, USA

Paolo COTTONE
Dipartimento Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova,
Padova, Italy

Giorgio DA BORMIDA
GIUNTI Interactive Labs, Italy

Elisabeth Hornyanzsky DALHOM
Div. of Ergonomics and Aerosol Technology, Dept. of Design Sciences, Lund Institute of Technology,
Lund University, Sweden

Fabrizio DAVIDE
TELECOM ITALIA Learning Services S.p.A.,
Rome, Italy

Roy C. DAVIES
Div. of Ergonomics and Aerosol Technology, Dept. of Design Sciences, Lund Institute of Technology,
Lund University, Sweden

David DEKKER
Michigan Office of Services to the Aging,
Michigan, USA

Antonella DELLE FAVE
Laboratorio di Psicologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Precliniche LITA Vialba, Facoltà di Medicina e Chirurgia, Università degli Studi di Milano,
Milan, Italy

Babak A. FARSHCHIAN
Telenor Research, Norway

Andrea GAGGIOLI
Applied Technology for Neuro-Psychology, Istituto Auxologico Italiano,
Milan, Italy.

Laboratorio di Psicologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Precliniche LITA Vialba, Facoltà di Medicina e Chirurgia, Università degli Studi di Milano,
Milan, Italy


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